Health workers vaccination: Experience and lessons learned from Costa Rica.

Objective: To describe the decision-making processes, enablers, challenges and lessons learned in Costa Rica for implementing a sustained and multi-pronged approach in health workers vaccination (HW). Methods: A retrospective descriptive analysis was conducted by searching published and grey literature, including scientific publications, legislation, decrees, policies, manuals, technical reports, and platforms used for data register and coverage monitoring. Key informants from the Ministry of Health (MoH), the Costa Rican Social Security Fund (CCSS) were interviewed representing national, subnational and local levels; as well as members of the National Technical Advisory Group (NITAG) and the private sector. Collected data were transcribed and categorized by the following specific topics using a thematic content analysis approach: decision making process, pre-service screening, vaccination for current HWs and engagement with the private sector. Major findings were discussed and organized into enablers, challenges and lessons learned. Results: Decision making processes to establish the vaccination strategies and schedules in Costa Rica were based on the epidemiological trends of vaccine-preventable diseases (VPDs) and cost analysis. Risk assessment and feasibility considerations determined that some vaccines such as hepatitis B, varicella and influenza, were first introduced in HWs and then were expanded to other target populations. These decisions were approved by the NITAG as the advisory technical advisory group of the MoH. Main enablers identified were: high level and sustained political will, decisions based on data analysis and feasibility considerations, HWs knowledge and high vaccine acceptance and demand. Challenges were related to effective coverage monitoring, and private sector engagement. Conclusions: The Costa Rican experience provides lessons learned that can be leveraged by other countries to strengthen HWs vaccination strategies at regional and global levels.

Prevalencia de la caquexia oncológica en pacientes a nivel de atención primaria: un enfoque paliativo / Prevalence of cachexia related to cancer in patients at a primary level: a palliative approach

Resumen:Justificación:la caquexia por cáncer es un síndrome multifactorial caracterizado por la pérdida de masa muscular (con o sin pérdida de tejido graso), que se asocia a un deterioro funcional y que no es posible revertir de manera completa solo con soporte nutricional. Su detección oportuna ayudaría a mejorar la calidad de vida de estos pacientes. El objetivo de esta investigación fue determinar la prevalencia de la caquexia oncológica en el EBAIS de San Isidro, en el Área de Salud de Atenas, Alajuela, Costa Rica, en pacientes diagnosticados con cáncer en el período 2010 - 2013, con el propósito de identificar y caracterizar este problema para proponer medidas de prevención y control en el ámbito de la atención integral y cuidados paliativos.Metodología:se realizó un estudio observacional, descriptivo de tipo transversal, en pacientes diagnosticados con enfermedad neoplásica y en condiciones paliativas. Se seleccionaron todos los pacientes con diagnósticos de enfermedad oncológica, según los códigos del CIE10 durante ese periodo en estudio. Se calcularon medidas de frecuencia, tendencia central y dispersión. Se utilizó EpiInfo 3.5.5Resultados:el mayor porcentaje de pacientes con cáncer se ubica en el grupo de etario de 65 años y más, para un 48%. Los pacientes diagnosticados con cáncer en su mayoría eran del sexo femenino, para un 65,2%. El 52% de las personas estaban incluidas en el programa de Cuidados Paliativos. La prevalencia de caquexia oncológica en esta área de salud fue del 21,7%, siendo más frecuentes en los cánceres del tubo digestivo (8,7%) y de pulmón (4,3%).Discusión:se documentó presencia de caquexia oncológica en un 21,7% de individuos con cáncer evaluados en un nivel de atención primaria. Más de la mitad de las personas evaluadas estaban incluidas en un programa de cuidados paliativos, lo cual sobrepasa lo documentado en países como España.

Abstract:Justification:Cancer cachexia is a multifactorial syndrome, characterized by loss of muscle mass (with or without loss of fat tissue) even before weight loss becomes apparent, which is associated to a functional impairment andwhich is not possible to revert completely alone with nutritional support. Timely identification would help increase the quality of life of these patients. To determine the prevalence of cancer cachexia at the EBAIS of San Isidro in the Health Area of Atenas, Alajuela, Costa Rica, in patients diagnosed with cancer in the period between 2010 to 2013 with the purpose of identifying and characterizing this problem to propose prevention and control measures as part of a of comprehensive and palliative care.Methods:An observational, descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted in patients who were diagnosed with neoplastic disease and in palliative conditions. All patients with oncological disease diagnoses according to CIE10 codes were selected during the study period. Measures of frequency, central tendency and dispersion were calculated. EpiInfo 3.5.5 was used.Results: The highest percentage of cancer patients was observed in the age group of 65 years and more, 48%. The patients diagnosed with cancer were mostly females, 65.2%. Of the patiens analized, 52% were included in the palliative care of the Health Area of Atenas. It was possible to determine the prevalence of cachexia (using a diagnostic criterion weight loss of more than 5% in the year after diagnosis of oncology cancer disease) of 21.7%, being more frequent in cancers of the digestive tube (8.7%), followed by lung cancer 4.3%.Discussion:Cancer cachexia was documented in 21.7% of the cancer patients evaluated at a primary care level. More than half of the persons evaluated were included in the palliative care program, this is beyond what is documented for countries like Spain.

Prevalence of diabetes and impaired fasting glucose in Costa Rica: Costa Rican National Cardiovascular Risk Factors Survey, 2010.

BACKGROUND: The projected rising prevalence of diabetes and impaired fasting glucose (IFG) in developing countries warrants careful monitoring. The aim of this study was to present the results of the Costa Rican National Cardiovascular Risk Factors Surveillance System, which provides the first national estimates of diabetes and IFG prevalence among adults in Costa Rica. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey of 3653 non-institutionalized adults aged ≥20 years (87.8% response rate) following the World Health Organization STEPwise approach was built on a probabilistic sample of the non-institutionalized population during 2010. Known diabetes was defined as self-reported diagnosis, the use of insulin, or hypoglycemic oral treatment as consequence of diabetes during at least the previous 2 weeks before the survey. Unknown diabetes was defined no self-reported diabetes but with venous blood concentrations of fasting glucose >125 mg/dL determined by laboratory testing. Impaired fasting glucose was defined as fasting glucose between 100 and 125 mg/dL among those without diabetes. The prevalence of diabetes and IFG prevalence was estimated according gender, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), educational level, and physical activity level. RESULTS: Overall diabetes prevalence was 10.8% (9.5% known and 1.3% unknown diabetes) and IFG prevalence was 16.5%. The prevalence of known diabetes was higher among women >65 years compared with men of the same age group. Both known and unknown diabetes were significantly associated with higher BMI, increased WC, and low education level (P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of diabetes and IFG in Costa Rica is comparable to that in developed countries and indicates an urgent need for effective preventive interventions.

Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Central America: a cross-sectional population-based study / Prevalencia del síndrome metabólico en Centroamérica: un estudio transversal basado en la población

Objective. To report the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) as found by the Central American Diabetes Initiative (CAMDI) study for five major Central American populations: Belize (national); Costa Rica (San José); Guatemala (Guatemala City); Honduras (Tegucigalpa); and Nicaragua (Managua). Methods. Study data on 6 185 adults aged 20 years or older with anthropometric and laboratory determination of MetS from population-based surveys were analyzed. Overall, the survey response rate was 82.0%. MetS prevalence was determined according to criteria from the Adult Treatment Panel III of the National Cholesterol Education Program. The study’s protocol was reviewed and approved by the bioethical committee of each country studied. Results. The overall standardized prevalence of MetS in the Central American region was 30.3% (95% confidence interval (CI): 27.1–33.4). There was wide variability by gender and work conditions, with higher prevalence among females and unpaid workers. The standardized percentage of the population free of any component of MetS was lowest in Costa Rica (9.0%; CI: 6.5–11.4) and highest in Honduras (21.1%; CI: 16.4–25.9). Conclusions. Overall prevalence of MetS in Central America is high. Strengthening surveillance of chronic diseases and establishing effective programs for preventing cardiovascular diseases might reduce the risk of MetS in Central America.

Objetivo. Notificar la prevalencia del síndrome metabólico (SMet) observada en el estudio de la Iniciativa Centroamericana de Diabetes (CAMDI) llevado a cabo en cinco importantes poblaciones centroamericanas: Belice (nacional); Costa Rica (San José); Guatemala (Ciudad de Guatemala); Honduras (Tegucigalpa); y Nicaragua (Managua). Métodos. Se analizaron los datos de estudio obtenidos de las encuestas poblacionales dirigidas a 6 185 adultos de 20 años de edad o mayores con determinaciones antropométricas y de laboratorio relativas al SMet. En términos generales, la tasa de respuesta a las encuestas fue de 82,0%. Se determinó la prevalencia del SMet según los criterios del tercer informe del Grupo de Expertos en el Tratamiento de Adultos (Adult Treatment Panel III) del Programa Nacional de Educación sobre el Colesterol. El protocolo del estudio fue examinado y aprobado por el comité de bioética de cada uno de los países incluidos en el estudio. Resultados. La prevalencia general estandarizada del SMet en Centroamérica fue de 30,3% (Intervalo de confianza de 95% (IC): 27,1–33,4). Se observó una amplia variabilidad según el sexo y las condiciones laborales, con mayor prevalencia en mujeres y trabajadores no retribuidos. El menor porcentaje estandarizado de población libre de cualquier componente del SMet se observó en Costa Rica (9,0%; IC: 6,5–11,4) y el mayor en Honduras (21,1%; IC: 16,4–25,9). Conclusiones. La prevalencia general de SMet en Centroamérica es alta. Se podría reducir el riesgo de SMet en Centroamérica mediante el fortalecimiento de la vigilancia de las enfermedades crónicas y el establecimiento de programas eficaces de prevención de las enfermedades cardiovasculares.

Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Central America: a cross-sectional population-based study / Prevalencia del síndrome metabólico en Centroamérica: un estudio transversal basado en la población

OBJECTIVE: To report the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) as found by the Central American Diabetes Initiative (CAMDI) study for five major Central American populations: Belize (national); Costa Rica (San José); Guatemala (Guatemala City); Honduras (Tegucigalpa); and Nicaragua (Managua). METHODS: Study data on 6 185 adults aged 20 years or older with anthropometric and laboratory determination of MetS from population-based surveys were analyzed. Overall, the survey response rate was 82.0%. MetS prevalence was determined according to criteria from the Adult Treatment Panel III of the National Cholesterol Education Program. The study's protocol was reviewed and approved by the bioethical committee of each country studied. RESULTS: The overall standardized prevalence of MetS in the Central American region was 30.3% (95% confidence interval (CI): 27.1-33.4). There was wide variability by gender and work conditions, with higher prevalence among females and unpaid workers. The standardized percentage of the population free of any component of MetS was lowest in Costa Rica (9.0%; CI: 6.5-11.4) and highest in Honduras (21.1%; CI: 16.4-25.9). CONCLUSIONS: Overall prevalence of MetS in Central America is high. Strengthening surveillance of chronic diseases and establishing effective programs for preventing cardiovascular diseases might reduce the risk of MetS in Central America.

OBJETIVO: Notificar la prevalencia del síndrome metabólico (SMet) observada en el estudio de la Iniciativa Centroamericana de Diabetes (CAMDI) llevado a cabo en cinco importantes poblaciones centroamericanas: Belice (nacional); Costa Rica (San José); Guatemala (Ciudad de Guatemala); Honduras (Tegucigalpa); y Nicaragua (Managua). MÉTODOS: Se analizaron los datos de estudio obtenidos de las encuestas poblacionales dirigidas a 6 185 adultos de 20 años de edad o mayores con determinaciones antropométricas y de laboratorio relativas al SMet. En términos generales, la tasa de respuesta a las encuestas fue de 82,0%. Se determinó la prevalencia del SMet según los criterios del tercer informe del Grupo de Expertos en el Tratamiento de Adultos (Adult Treatment Panel III) del Programa Nacional de Educación sobre el Colesterol. El protocolo del estudio fue examinado y aprobado por el comité de bioética de cada uno de los países incluidos en el estudio. RESULTADOS: La prevalencia general estandarizada del SMet en Centroamérica fue de 30,3% (Intervalo de confianza de 95% (IC): 27,1-33,4). Se observó una amplia variabilidad según el sexo y las condiciones laborales, con mayor prevalencia en mujeres y trabajadores no retribuidos. El menor porcentaje estandarizado de población libre de cualquier componente del SMet se observó en Costa Rica (9,0%; IC: 6,5-11,4) y el mayor en Honduras (21,1%; IC: 16,4-25,9). CONCLUSIONES: La prevalencia general de SMet en Centroamérica es alta. Se podría reducir el riesgo de SMet en Centroamérica mediante el fortalecimiento de la vigilancia de las enfermedades crónicas y el establecimiento de programas eficaces de prevención de las enfermedades cardiovasculares.

Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in Central America: a cross-sectional population-based study.

OBJECTIVE: To report the prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) as found by the Central American Diabetes Initiative (CAMDI) study for five major Central American populations: Belize (national); Costa Rica (San José); Guatemala (Guatemala City); Honduras (Tegucigalpa); and Nicaragua (Managua). METHODS: Study data on 6 185 adults aged 20 years or older with anthropometric and laboratory determination of MetS from population-based surveys were analyzed. Overall, the survey response rate was 82.0%. MetS prevalence was determined according to criteria from the Adult Treatment Panel III of the National Cholesterol Education Program. The study's protocol was reviewed and approved by the bioethical committee of each country studied. RESULTS: The overall standardized prevalence of MetS in the Central American region was 30.3% (95% confidence interval (CI): 27.1-33.4). There was wide variability by gender and work conditions, with higher prevalence among females and unpaid workers. The standardized percentage of the population free of any component of MetS was lowest in Costa Rica (9.0%; CI: 6.5-11.4) and highest in Honduras (21.1%; CI: 16.4-25.9). CONCLUSIONS: Overall prevalence of MetS in Central America is high. Strengthening surveillance of chronic diseases and establishing effective programs for preventing cardiovascular diseases might reduce the risk of MetS in Central America.

Factores asociados a las alteraciones del test de papanicolaou Costa Rica, 2009 / Factors associated with changes in PAP smears in a health center Costa Rica, 2009

El cáncer cervicouterino es en el mundo y en Costa Rica una de las 3 primeras causas de cáncer en las mujeres. La detección temprana de lesiones premalignas o malignas mejora el pronóstico de las usuarias. Objetivo: Encontrar si hay factores asociados a las alteraciones de la citología vaginal en un área de salud urbana de Costa Rica durante 2009. Metodología: Estudio de casos y controles en usuarias de una área de salud urbana de Costa Rica durante 2009. Se definió caso como toda mujer residente de esa área que presentara una citología vaginal alterada, displasia leve, moderada, severa o carcinoma durante 2009. Los controles se seleccionaron de forma aleatoria simple, tomando como marco muestral el registro de mujeres que se habían realizado citologías vaginales durante el 2009 en esa área. La recolección de la información se hizo a través de un cuestionario. Se calcularon medidas de frecuencia, de tendencia central y dispersión, OR, IC 95 %. Resultados: Se incluyeron 62 casos y 137 controles. La edad promedio de los casos fue 43 años (DE±17). El ASCUS fue la lesión más frecuente 39 % (IC 95 %=22,43-51,93). Los factores asociados a la aparición de lesiones fueron tabaco (OR=2.35; IC 95 %=1,26-4,31), inicio de actividad sexual antes de 18 años (OR=2;I C 95 %=1,06-3,64) y haber tenido 3 o más compañeros sexuales (OR=2, 10;IC 95 % 1,11-3,97). Discusión: Se encontró similitud entre lo descrito en la literatura y lo hallado en este estudio. Se recomendó dar a conocer este estudio a las mujeres de esa área de salud, ya que los factores encontrados son modificables y además se planteó a la dirección del área realizar campañas de promoción y prevención que fomenten conductas sexuales sanas.

Cervical cancer is among the leading causes of cancer in women globally; in Costa Rica it is among the top three causes. Although the PAP smears is part of the guidelines of care for women, the coverage in some areas of health is low. Objective: Identify demographic and clinical factors associated with abnormal Pap test results Methods: We conducted a health center-based case-control study. A case was defined as any woman seeking care in a health center during 2009, having a Pap test positive for either cells of undetermined significance (Atypical Squamous Cells of Undetermined Significance) mild, moderate or severe dysplasia. Controls were selected by simple random sampling using records of women seen at the same health centers in 2009 and having normal PAP smears. Odds ratios and 95 % confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated for associations between potential risk factors and abnormal PAP smears. Results: We identified 62 cases and 137 controls. The average age of cases was 43 was not significantly different from that of controls (Student t p = 0,90). ASCUS was the most frequent cause of abnormal cytology (39 %). Factors found to be significantly associated with abnormal cytology were: tobacco use (OR=2,35; 95 % CI=1,26-4,31), onset of sexual activity before age 18 (OR=2,0; 95 % CI=1,06-3,64) and having a history of > 3 sexual partners (OR=2,0; 95 % CI=1,11-3,97). Conclusions: There was similarity between risk factors we identified as described in the literature, like onset of sexual activity before age 18 and have history of 3 or more sexual parthers. These are common risk factors associated with HPV infection. Our study was limited by the failure to follow-up colposcopy results for definitive diagnoses and no HPV test. Considering these risk factors represent modifiable health behaviors, we recommended dissemination of our findings to local health authorities in order to generate intervention strategies to promote responsible, healthy sexual behaviors as how to reduce tobacco consumption and develop healthy sexual habits.

Clostridium difficile outbreak in Costa Rica: control actions and associated factors / Brote de infección por Clostridium difficile en Costa Rica: medidas de control y factores asociados

OBJECTIVE: To describe interventions implemented during a nosocomial outbreak of Clostridium difficile in a general hospital in Costa Rica from December 2009 to April 2010 in order to achieve outbreak control and the factors determined to be associated with C. difficile infection. METHODS: Laboratory-confirmed cases of C. difficile were analyzed to describe the outbreak pattern and intervention measures implemented. Cases were selected and recruited in a case-control study. Controls were selected from the same services and time period as the cases. Evaluated exposures included underlying medical conditions and treatments administered before the onset of symptoms. RESULTS: The mean ages in case and control groups were 62.3 and 55.3 years, respectively. Control measures included a hand-hygiene campaign, deep disinfection of hospital surfaces, strict isolation of cases, use of personal protection equipment, and restriction of antibiotic use. The adjusted attributable risks associated with the outbreak were diabetes [odds ratio (OR) 3.4, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.5-7.7], chronic renal failure (OR 9.0, 95% CI 1.5-53.0), and prescribing ceftazidime (OR 33.3, 95% CI 2.9-385.5) and cefotaxime (OR 20.4, 95% CI 6.9-60.3). CONCLUSIONS: Timely implementation of control measures resulted in reduced infection transmission and successful control of the outbreak. Conditions associated with C. difficile infection were similar to those found in previously described outbreaks of this bacterium.

OBJETIVO: Describir las intervenciones ejecutadas durante un brote intrahospitalario de infección por Clostridium difficile en un hospital general de Costa Rica desde diciembre del 2009 hasta abril del 2010 para lograr el control del brote y de los factores asociados a la infección por C. difficile. MÉTODOS: Se analizaron los casos de infección por C. difficile que se habían confirmado mediante pruebas de laboratorio a fin de describir las características del brote y las medidas que se tomaron. Se seleccionaron los casos y se incluyeron en un estudio de casos y testigos; se seleccionaron los testigos en los mismos servicios y el mismo periodo que los casos. Las exposiciones evaluadas incluían las afecciones médicas subyacentes y los tratamientos administrados antes de que comenzaran los síntomas. RESULTADOS: La media de la edad en los grupos de los casos y de los testigos fue de 62,3 años y 55,3 años, respectivamente. Las medidas de control incluyeron una campaña de promoción de la higiene de las manos, la desinfección a fondo de las superficies hospitalarias, el aislamiento estricto de los casos, el uso de equipo de protección personal y la restricción del uso de antibióticos. Los riesgos atribuibles ajustados que se asociaron al brote fueron la diabetes (razón de posibilidades [OR]: 3,4; intervalo de confianza [IC] de 95%: 1,5-7,7), la insuficiencia renal crónica (OR: 9,0; IC de 95%: 1,5-53,0) y el uso de ceftazidima (OR: 33,3; IC de 95%: 2,9-385,5) y cefotaxima (OR: 20,4; IC de 95%: 6,9-60,3). CONCLUSIONES: La aplicación oportuna de medidas de control redujo la transmisión de la infección y permitió controlar satisfactoriamente el brote. Las afecciones y los factores que se asociaron a la infección por C. difficile fueron similares a los que se encontraron en brotes de esta infección descritos anteriormente.

Clostridium difficile outbreak in Costa Rica: control actions and associated factors.

OBJECTIVE: To describe interventions implemented during a nosocomial outbreak of Clostridium difficile in a general hospital in Costa Rica from December 2009 to April 2010 in order to achieve outbreak control and the factors determined to be associated with C. difficile infection. METHODS: Laboratory-confirmed cases of C. difficile were analyzed to describe the outbreak pattern and intervention measures implemented. Cases were selected and recruited in a case-control study. Controls were selected from the same services and time period as the cases. Evaluated exposures included underlying medical conditions and treatments administered before the onset of symptoms. RESULTS: The mean ages in case and control groups were 62.3 and 55.3 years, respectively. Control measures included a hand-hygiene campaign, deep disinfection of hospital surfaces, strict isolation of cases, use of personal protection equipment, and restriction of antibiotic use. The adjusted attributable risks associated with the outbreak were diabetes [odds ratio (OR) 3.4, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.5-7.7], chronic renal failure (OR 9.0, 95% CI 1.5-53.0), and prescribing ceftazidime (OR 33.3, 95% CI 2.9-385.5) and cefotaxime (OR 20.4, 95% CI 6.9-60.3). CONCLUSIONS: Timely implementation of control measures resulted in reduced infection transmission and successful control of the outbreak. Conditions associated with C. difficile infection were similar to those found in previously described outbreaks of this bacterium.